Professional teachers are required to be able to display their expertise in front of the class. One of these skills, namely the ability to convey lessons to students. To be able to convey lessons effectively and efficiently, teachers need to be familiar with various types of learning strategies so they can choose which strategy is most appropriate for teaching a particular field of study.
Successively, the teachers will study the concept of learning strategies, including the understanding of approaches, strategies, methods, learning techniques, and underlying theories, as well as various types of approaches in learning strategies. In order to achieve learning objectives, each teacher is required to understand the correct learning strategy that will be applied.
In this regard, a teacher needs to think about the learning strategy that will be used. Selection of appropriate learning strategies have an impact on the level of mastery or student achievement. After studying the material in this article, teachers are expected to be able to explain the concept of learning strategies and their types.
In more detail, teachers are expected to be able to:
- Explain the differences between learning approaches, strategies, methods, and techniques;
- Identify the theories that underlie learning strategies;
- Identify different types of learning strategies based on specific approaches.
Definition of learning strategies
The learning process occurs because of the interaction between students and their environment. Therefore, the environment needs to be arranged in such a way that student reactions arise towards the desired behavior change. The environmental settings include analyzing student needs, student characteristics, formulating objectives, determining subject matter, selecting appropriate strategies, and the required learning media.
So, the learning strategy is one of the important elements understood by the teacher. The learning strategy is prepared based on a certain approach. Therefore, before describing the learning strategy, the understanding of the approach will first be explained.
In succession the following will put forward the notions of approaches, strategies, methods, and techniques in learning.
1. Approach
An approach is a set of insights that are systematically used as a basis for thinking in determining strategies, methods, and techniques (procedures) in achieving certain targets or results in accordance with predetermined objectives. Approach can also be interpreted as a perspective or perspective of someone in addressing something.
2. Learning Strategy
The word strategy comes from the Latin strategy , which is defined as the art of using plans to achieve goals. Learning strategies according to Frelberg & Driscoll (1992) can be used to achieve various objectives of providing subject matter at various levels, for different students, in different contexts.
Gerlach & Ely (1980) said that learning strategies are the ways chosen to convey subject matter in a particular learning environment, including the nature, scope, and sequence of activities that can provide learning experiences to students. Dick & Carey (1996) argues that learning strategies are not only limited to activity procedures, but also include learning materials or packages.
The learning strategy consists of all components of the subject matter and procedures that will be used to help students achieve certain learning goals. The learning strategy can also be interpreted as a pattern of learning activities that the teacher chooses and uses contextually, according to the characteristics of the students, the conditions of the school, the surrounding environment and the specific learning objectives that are formulated.
Gerlach & Ely (1980) also said that there needs to be a link between learning strategies and learning objectives, so that steps for effective and efficient learning activities are obtained. Learning strategies consist of methods and techniques (procedures) that will guarantee that students will actually achieve the learning objectives.
3. Learning Methods
The words method and technique are often used interchangeably. Gerlach & Ely (1980) said that techniques (which are sometimes called methods) can be observed in every learning activity. Technique is a path or tool ( way or means ) used by the teacher to direct student activities towards the goal to be achieved.
An effective teacher at any time is ready to use various methods (techniques) effectively and efficiently towards achieving goals. Method, according to Winarno Surakhmad (1986) is a way, which in its function is a tool to achieve a goal. This applies both to teachers (teaching method) and to students (learning method). The better the method used, the more effective the achievement of goals. However, methods are sometimes distinguished from techniques.
The method is procedural in nature, while the technique is more implementative in nature, meaning that it is the implementation of what actually happened (done by the teacher) to achieve the goal. For example, teacher A and teacher B both use the lecture method, both know how the procedure for implementing the lecture method is effective, but the results of teacher A are different from teacher B because of the different implementation techniques.
So, each teacher has a different technique in carrying out the same method. Let’s review the meaning of the strategy described above, that the strategy consists of methods and techniques or procedures that ensure students achieve goals. From this description it is clear that learning strategies are broader than learning methods and techniques.
4. Learning Techniques
Learning methods and techniques are part of the learning strategy. To further clarify the difference, consider the following example:
In a Lecture Program Unit (SAP) for the course “Teaching Methods for Students of the Teaching Deed Program”, there is a formulation of specific learning objectives, namely “student teacher candidates are expected to be able to identify at least four forms of discussion as teaching methods”.
The strategy chosen to achieve this goal, for example the following:
- Students were asked to state four forms of discussion they had seen, in groups.
- Students were asked to read two books on discussion forms from several books.
- Students are asked to demonstrate ways of discussing according to the form being studied, while the other groups observe while recording their shortcomings for discussion after the demonstration is over.
- Students are expected to record the results of class discussions.
From this example it can be seen that activities number c and d are learning techniques, using demonstration and discussion methods. All of the activities mentioned above are strategies developed by the teacher to achieve learning objectives. In setting the strategy, the teacher can choose various methods, such as lectures, questions and answers, discussions, and demonstrations. Various media, such as films, VCDs, audio tapes, and pictures, can be used as part of the techniques chosen by the teacher.
Theory Underlying Learning Strategies
Crowl, Kaminsky & Podell (1997) put forward three approaches that underlie the development of learning strategies. First , Advance Organizers from Ausubel, which are introductory statements that help students prepare for new learning activities and show the relationship between what will be learned and broader concepts or ideas.
Second , Discovery learning from Bruner, which suggests learning starts from presenting problems from the teacher to improve students’ abilities to investigate and determine solutions. Third , learning events from Gagne.
1. Meaningful Learning from Ausubel
Ausubel (1977) suggests the use of active interaction between teachers and students which is called meaningful verbal learning or abbreviated meaningful learning. This learning emphasizes expository in a way, the teacher presents material explicitly and in an organized way.
In this lesson, students receive a series of ideas presented by the teacher in an efficient way. This Ausubel model emphasizes deductive reasoning, which requires students to first learn the principles, then learn to recognize the specifics of those principles.
This approach assumes that a person learns best when he understands general concepts, progresses deductively from rules or principles to examples. Meaningful learning from Ausubel focuses on dynamic verbal interactions between teachers and students. The teacher begins with an advance organizer , then moves on to the learning sections, then develops the series of steps the teacher uses to teach expository.
2. Advanced Organizer
The teacher uses the advance organizer to activate student schemata (the existence of student understanding), to find out what students already know, and to help them recognize the relevance of the knowledge they already have. Advance organizers introduce general new knowledge that students can use as a framework for understanding new information content in detail. Teachers can use the advance organizer to teach any subject area.
3. Discovery Learning from Bruner
Bruner’s discovery learning theory assumes that learning is best when students discover information and concepts for themselves. In discovery learning, students use inductive reasoning to get principles, examples.
For example, the teacher explains to students about the invention of incandescent lamps, cameras, and CDs, as well as a comparison between invention and discovery (for example, electricity, nuclear, and gravity). Students then describe for themselves what is meant by invention and how it differs from discovery .
In discovery learning, students “find” basic concepts or principles by carrying out activities that demonstrate these concepts. Bruner believes that students “own” knowledge when they find it on their own and are responsible for their own learning activities, which motivates them to learn.
4. Learning Events According to Gagne
Gagne (in Gagne & Driscoll, 1988) developed a model based on information processing theory which views learning in terms of 9 sequences of events as follows.
- Attract students’ attention.
- Present learning objectives.
- Gain prior knowledge.
- Presents stimulating materials.
- Guiding study.
- Receive student responses.
- Give feedback.
- Assess performance.
- Increase retention and transfer.
Various Learning Strategies
There are several bases that can be used to classify learning strategies. In the following, some of them will be put forward to be understood and in time can be selected and used effectively.
Based on the form of the approach, distinguished:
1. Expository and Discovery/Inquiry
From the results of Edwin Fenton’s research it is known that the learning strategies that are widely used by teachers move on a continuum line which is described as follows.
Image: The Learning Continuum
With this diagram it can be seen that the far left end is “Expository”, which means the teacher only provides information in the form of theory, generalizations, laws or propositions along with supporting evidence. Students only receive the information provided by the teacher. Learning has been organized by the teacher so that it is ready to be conveyed to students and students are expected to learn from the information they receive, learning is called expository.
Gerlach & Ely (1980) said that the continuum mentioned above is useful for teachers in choosing learning methods. The dots that move from the far left to the far right contain expository elements with various methods that move little by little to the element of discovery .
In reality, there is almost no pure discovery , teachers generally use two polar strategies and more than two kinds of learning methods, even using mixed methods. One day the teacher can use expository strategies with expository methods as well. Likewise with discovery/inquiry so that one day the expository discovery/inquiry can function as a learning strategy, but someday it also functions as a learning method.
2. Discovery and Inquiry
Discovery is often used interchangeably with inquiry . Discovery is a mental process that expects students to assimilate a concept or a principle. Mental processes, for example observing, explaining, classifying, and making conclusions. Concepts, for example circle, triangle, democracy, and energy.
Principles, for example “every metal expands when heated”. Inquiry, is an extension of discovery ( discovery that is used more deeply). That is, inquiry contains a higher level of mental processes. For example, formulating problems, designing experiments, carrying out experiments, collecting data, analyzing data, and making conclusions.
The use of discovery within certain limits is good for low grades, while inquiry is good for students in higher grades. One form of discovery called Guided Discovery ( guided discovery ), the teacher gives some instructions to students to help students avoid dead ends. The teacher asks questions or reveals dilemmas that require solutions, provides appropriate and interesting materials, and improves students’ abilities to present and test hypotheses.
In succession the steps of guided discovery are as follows.
- There is a problem to be solved, which is stated in a question or statement.
- The level/class is clear (eg SMP class III).
- Concepts or principles that students must find through these activities need to be written clearly.
- Tools/materials need to be provided according to the needs of students in carrying out activities.
- Discussion as a guide before students carry out activities.
- Discovery method activities by students in the form of investigations/experiments to discover the concepts or principles that have been established.
- The process of critical thinking needs to be explained to show students’ operational mentality, which is expected in activities.
- It is necessary to develop questions that are open-ended, which lead to activities carried out by students.
- There is a teacher’s note which includes an explanation of difficult matters and factors that could affect the results especially if the investigation fails or doesn’t go as it should.
The inquiry steps are as follows.
- Define the problem.
- Data collection to gain clarity.
- Collecting data to conduct experiments.
- Formulation of the information obtained.
- Inquiry process analysis .
3. Active Student Learning Method (CBSA)
Since ancient times this way of learning has existed, namely that in the classroom there must be learning activities that activate students. It’s just that the level (level) of student involvement is different. If in the past the teacher crammed more facts, information or concepts into students, but now a skill has been developed to process student acquisition.
Learning activities are no longer teacher-centered, but student- centered . Students essentially have potential or abilities that have not been clearly formed, so it is the teacher’s obligation to provide a stimulus so that students are able to display that potential, no matter how simple it is. Teachers can cultivate skills in students according to their level of development so that students acquire concepts.
By developing acquired processing skills, students will be able to discover and develop their own facts and concepts, as well as develop the attitudes and values required. This kind of learning process can create active learning students. The essence of CBSA is the process of intellectual-emotional involvement of students in learning activities that allows:
- The process of assimilation/cognitive experience that enables the formation of knowledge.
- The process of action/direct experience that allows the formation of skills.
- The process of appreciating and internalizing values that enables the formation of values and attitudes.